Millions of girls across Africa remain at risk of child marriage and female genital mutilation (FGM) despite stronger laws banning the practices, with experts warning that climate change, poverty and weak law enforcement continue to expose girls to harmful traditions.
A report by the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACERWC), supported by Equality Now, highlights how emerging crises are intensifying long-standing drivers of child marriage and FGM across the continent.
Drawing on case studies from ten African countries including Malawi, Chad, Cameroon, Egypt, Ethiopia, Mali, Nigeria, Somalia, Sudan and Zimbabwe, the report warns that climate-related shocks are increasingly deepening vulnerabilities faced by girls.
According to Sally Ncube, Regional Representative for Southern Africa at Equality Now, extreme weather events are acting as “threat multipliers” that worsen social and economic pressures already affecting families.
“Extreme weather events driven by climate change such as droughts, floods and cyclones are increasing in frequency and intensity across Africa. These shocks deepen poverty, weaken protection systems and increase girls’ vulnerability to harmful practices,” she said.
The link between climate and child marriage is stark. An estimated 1.5 million girls in Malawi are at risk due to climate-exacerbated food insecurity and displacement, according to a 2025 academic study. Across the continent, millions more face similar pressures as extreme weather events become more frequent and severe.
Ncube explained that when livelihoods collapse following climate shocks, some families resort to child marriage as a coping strategy.
“For families pushed deeper into poverty and instability, child marriage can be seen as a way to reduce the number of dependents or obtain bride price for short-term financial relief,” she said.
Displacement caused by disasters can also place girls at greater risk, she added, as families move into overcrowded camps or informal settlements where security, education, and social services are limited.
“School closures are a critical factor. When disasters interrupt education, girls are far more likely to drop out permanently, and once they are out of school, their vulnerability to harmful practices such as child marriage and FGM increases significantly,” she said.
Despite progress in strengthening laws across Africa, Ncube noted that enforcement remains inconsistent, leaving many girls unprotected.
“Many countries have raised the minimum age of marriage to 18, including Malawi. However, the biggest challenge is the lack of enforcement and accountability from duty bearers responsible for implementing the law,” she said.
In some countries, legal loopholes still allow child marriage with parental or judicial consent, while overlapping customary, religious, and statutory laws create confusion and weaken enforcement.
“Where different legal systems contradict one another, girls may remain unprotected even where national laws appear to ban child marriage,” she said.
However, the report also highlights examples of progress across the continent.
Malawi is cited as a positive example after amending its Constitution and the Marriage, Divorce, and Family Relations Act to set the minimum marriage age at 18 for both girls and boys without exceptions.
Nationally, 38 percent of girls in Malawi marry before 18, according to 2025 data, with rates exceeding 45 percent in districts including Mzimba, Phalombe, Mangochi, Mulanje, and Chitipa. In Mzimba alone, 268 child marriage cases were recorded between January and September 2025, reflecting the persistent challenge of translating legal protections into practice.
Ncube said community leadership has also played an important role in challenging harmful practices.
“Traditional leaders such as Theresa Kachindamoto have annulled thousands of child marriages and advocated strongly for girls to remain in school. This demonstrates how cultural authority can challenge harmful practices,” she said.
Similar legal progress has also been recorded in countries such as Chad and Zimbabwe, where governments and courts have strengthened laws to align with regional and international child rights standards.
According to the report, the root causes of child marriage and FGM remain largely consistent across Africa, including poverty, gender inequality and entrenched social norms. However, the way these factors interact differs across regions.
“In Nigeria, ethnic and religious dynamics and disparities in education influence the practice, while in Somalia conflict, displacement and climate shocks play a larger role in sustaining harmful practices,” Ncube explained.
The report stresses that legislation alone cannot eliminate child marriage and FGM without stronger protection systems.
“Protecting millions of girls requires more than strong laws. Governments must invest in education, child protection services, police training and survivor support programmes so that legal protections can work in practice,” she said.
Community-led approaches are also essential in addressing harmful practices, she added.
“This includes working with traditional and religious leaders, parents, youth organisations and survivors to openly discuss the harms of practices like child marriage and FGM and promote alternative ways of protecting girls.”
The economic toll of child marriage is significant. Each child marriage costs Malawi approximately K9 million, and early marriage has cost women in the country an estimated US$167 million in lost earnings, according to World Bank and African Institute for Development Policy research. Ending child marriage could generate an estimated US$500 million within 15 years, highlighting the economic case for accelerated action.
Child protection advocates in Malawi say poverty, cultural norms and climate shocks continue to drive child marriage despite existing laws.
According to Sammy Aaron, Executive Director of Action Hope Malawi, child marriage is sustained by a complex mix of economic and social pressures affecting many families.
“Poverty remains the primary driver, with many families resorting to early marriage as a coping mechanism, especially in rural areas,” Aaron said.
Limited access to education and high school dropout rates also increase the vulnerability of girls to early marriage. Nationally, 93 percent of married girls aged 15 to 17 are out of school, compared to 80 percent of their never-married peers, according to 2022 UNICEF data. The impact on girls’ well-being is severe, with 36 percent of women who married as children experiencing intimate partner violence in the past year, and 42 percent of girls experiencing physical violence by age 18, according to the same data.
“Harmful cultural norms and societal expectations continue to normalize the practice, while teenage pregnancy often leads to forced or arranged marriages due to stigma,” he explained.
Aaron noted that although Malawi has set the minimum marriage age at 18, implementation of the law remains a challenge in some communities.
“Child marriage persists due to gaps between legislation and practice. Weak enforcement of laws, particularly in rural areas, allows cases to go unreported or unaddressed,” he said.
He added that climate-related disasters such as floods and droughts have intensified the problem by worsening household poverty and disrupting livelihoods.
“These shocks deepen household vulnerability and limit choices for girls. Families facing economic hardship may resort to early marriage as a coping strategy,” Aaron said.
Aaron emphasised the importance of community engagement in preventing child marriage.
“Community leaders can challenge harmful practices and promote girls’ rights, while parents can prevent early marriages by prioritising their daughters’ education,” he said.
He also highlighted support systems available for survivors, including shelters, psychosocial counselling, legal assistance and programmes aimed at helping girls return to school.
The Ministry of Gender, Community Development and Social Welfare was contacted for comment on the report’s findings and the issues raised in this article but had not responded by the time of publication.
The ministry is responsible for coordinating child protection services and policies in Malawi. Through its Department of Child Affairs, it works to promote children’s rights, prevent child marriage and coordinate programmes that support orphans and other vulnerable children at community level.
These programmes are implemented in partnership with civil society organisations and development partners working alongside government to strengthen Malawi’s child protection system.
Advocates say sustained investment in education, stronger enforcement of laws and increased community awareness will be essential to reducing child marriage and other harmful practices.
Malawi is targeting a reduction in child marriage rates to 20 percent by 2030 under its National Strategy to End Child Marriage, though advocates note that achieving this goal will require significantly accelerated action, adequate funding and continued commitment from all sectors.
For many stakeholders, protecting girls means ensuring they remain in school, are safe from exploitation and have the opportunity to shape their own futures.